# Quantum physics explained

The universe is made of atoms, which consist of:

- A nucleon made of protons and (typically) neutrons
- Electrons orbiting erratically around the nucleon

Each atom has an atomic weight, which is *mostly* made of the protons and neutrons (neutrons are a little heavier), since electrons are comparatively smaller.

Beyond these physical properties, atoms also contain electromagnetic energy.

- Every proton carries +1 *e* and every electron carries -1 *e*. Naturally, if an atom has an uneven ratio of protons and electrons, it'll be positively or negatively charged, and is called an ion.
- This electrical distinction also possesses magnetic forces, demarcated as positive and negative polarity. This creates a type of field around the atom, which can merge with other atoms. That can create eddy currents with nearby magnetic atoms, even if *those* atoms aren't necessarily magnetic.

The proton itself is vastly complicated, and science simply doesn't know the answer. Protons are made of various kinds of quarks:

- The first model is the Gell-Mann and Zweig one, where there are 2 "up" quarks with +2/3 *e* and a "down" quark with -1/3 *e*, but it fails to account for the fact that the quarks are constantly spinning and that those 3 quarks are *way* less mass than the original measurement.
- Once they were able to use a faster particle accelerator, the next model assumed a "strong force" that used charm quarks, which were roped together by gluons, with each quark and gluon having 3 possible charges that all added up together, a bit like how 3 colors combine to create the color white. The theory is that the proton picks up momentary spikes of energy to create a quark and antiquark before disappearing, and the proton is an endless churn of them that creates a "cloud" that looks like a solid object. This model, however, doesn't explain the 3-quark model at lower speeds.
- Another more recent theory assumes the charm quarks *hold* the up and down quarks inside them like boxes without extra energy applied, then extra energy makes new charm quarks and antiquarks emerge, and the up and down quarks move out separately from all the quarks. They still have no idea for sure.

Inside an atom, the state of its electrons typically changes more than its nucleon. It's pretty common for atoms to gain or lose electrons.

When released, electromagnetic energy radiates outward as measurable photon waves. These [waves have vast ranges](engineering-radio.md) with wavelengths from 1 picometer (0.0000000001 centimeter) as gamma rays up to 100 megameter (1,000,000 meters) as radio waves. Visible light are the photons between 380 and 750 nanometers (0.000038-0.000075 centimeters).

## Further reading

[What's inside the proton?](https://www.quantamagazine.org/inside-the-proton-the-most-complicated-thing-imaginable-20221019/)